The history of Dacian warfare spans from c. 10th century BC to 2nd century AD in the region defined by Ancient Greek and Latin historians as Dacia, populated by a collection of Thracian, Ionian, and Dorian tribes.
Mythological
Tribal wars
The Dacians fought amongst each other
but were later united under
Burebista. However, after his death
[ The Legionary by Peter Connolly, 1998, page 14: "... dynamic king Burebista, a century and a half earlier, the Dacians had become the most powerful nation in central Europe, but since his death the country had been split by civil war."] in 44 BC, the empire again descended into conflict culminating in a full-scale
civil war. This led to the division of Burebista's empire into five separate kingdoms, severely weakening the Dacian's defensive capabilities against enemies, particularly Rome.
The Dacian tribes were again consolidated under
Decebalus, who achieved several military victories in a series of battles with the forces of Emperor Domitian.
Domitian's Dacian War
The two punitive expeditions mounted as a border defense against raids of
Moesia from Dacia in 86-87 AD ordered by the Emperor
Domitian (Domitian) in 87 AD, and 88 AD. The first expedition was an unmitigated disaster, and the second achieved a peace, seen as unfavorable and shameful by many in Rome.
Trajan's Dacian Wars
Two campaigns of conquest ordered or led by the Emperor Trajan in 101-102 AD, and 105-106 AD from
Moesia across the Danube north into Dacia. Trajan's forces were successful in both cases, reducing Dacia to
client state status in the first, and taking the territory over in the second. These wars involved no fewer than 13
Roman legion.
[A Companion to the Roman Army (Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World) by Paul Erdkamp, 2007, page 218] The defeat reduced the Dacian territory as a mere Roman province. Rome ruled it, including the entire Transylvanian basin for 150 years. A succession of migratory waves by Visigoths, Huns, Gepids, Avars, and Slavs overran Dacia, cutting it off from the Roman and the Byzantine empires by the end of the sixth century.
Dacian troop types and organization
The Dacians never fielded a standing army, even though there was a warrior class of sorts, the
comati, meaning "long-haired people". Instead, local chieftains, the
pileati, meaning "cap-wearing people", raised a levy when required, a force only available after the harvesting season ended. The men themselves fought in everyday clothing defended merely by an oval shield, for body armor and helmets were only worn by the nobility.
Infantry and cavalry
The
Dacians tribes established a highly
militarized society and, during the periods when the tribes were united under one king (82 -44 BC, 86-106 AD), posed a major threat to the
of Lower
Danube.
Julius Caesar made preparations for war with
Burebista to prevent an invasion of Macedonia, however both rulers died in the same year.
Dacia lost control over territories beyond the
Danube and
Tisza and collapsed into hostile factions, now being able to master only 40,000 men from the previous 200,000. Dacia, however, remained a formidable foe: in the winter of 10 BC, a raid across the Danube was repulsed by Marcus Vinicius. After some decades, the invasions restarted. A major one was monitored in 69 by Licinius Mucianus while on his way to battle
Vitellius. In another one in 85 the Romans almost lost
Moesia, and its governor Oppius Sabinus was killed. The following year a Dacian force annihilated the army of
Cornelius Fuscus under the new leader
Decebalus after the victory of
Tettius Julianus at
Tapae. As the war dragged on,
Domitian was distracted by the
Suebi and
Iazyges, and had to make a humiliating peace.
Later
Trajan had attacked Decebalus two times, first making peace before reaching the capital, then taking it and conquering around a third of
Dacia. According to Criton of Heraclea, 500,000 POWs were taken.
The
Free Dacians, allying with
Scythians and
Germanic peoples tribes never stopped raiding the new Roman province.
After the sound of the
carnyx war trumpet, the Dacians went to battle with the
Dacian Draco. The most important
weapon of their
arsenal was the
falx as depicted on Trajan's Column. This dreaded weapon, similar to a large
sickle, came in two variants: a shorter, one-handed falx called a
sica,
[Rome's Enemies (1): Germanics and Dacians (Men at Arms Series, 129) by Peter Wilcox and Gerry Embleton, 1982, page 35] and a longer two-handed version, which was a
polearm. It consisted of a three-feet long wooden shaft with a long curved iron
blade of nearly-equal length attached to the end. The blade was sharpened only on the inside, and was reputed to be devastatingly effective. However, it left its user vulnerable because, using a two-handed weapon, the
warrior could not also make use of a
shield. Alternatively, it might be used as a hook, pulling away shields and cutting at vulnerable limbs.
Using the falx, the Dacian warriors were able to counter the power of the compact, massed Roman formations. During the time of the Roman conquest of Dacia (101 - 102, 105 - 106), legionaries had reinforcing iron straps applied to their helmets. The Romans also introduced the use of leg and arm protectors ( and manica) as further protection against the falxes. This was one of the rare times in history where Roman armor was modified.
The Dacians were adept at surprise attacks and skillful, tactical withdrawals using the fortification system. During the wars with the Romans fought by their last king Decebalus (87-106), the Dacians almost crushed the Roman south of the Danube in a surprise attack launched over the frozen river (winter of 101-102). Only the intervention of Emperor Trajan with the main army saved the Romans from a major defeat. But, by 106, the Dacians were surrounded in their capital Sarmizegetusa. The city was taken after the Romans discovered and destroyed the capital's water supply line.
Dacians decorated their bodies with tattoos like the Illyrians[ The Illyrians by John Wilkes, 1996, page 198: "...their armor is Celtic but they are tattooed like the rest of the Illyrians and Thracians..."] and the Thracians.[ The World of Tattoo: An Illustrated History by Maarten Hesselt van Dinter, 2007, page 25: "... in ancient times. The Danube area Dacians, Thracians and Illyrians all decorated themselves with status-enhancing tattoos, ..."] The north of the Drava had accepted Roman rule out of fear of the Dacians.[The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, 2003, page 1106, "Pannonia north of the Drava appears to have accepted Roman rule without a struggle probably owing to fear of the Dacians to the east.]
Dacia remained a Roman province until 271.
Dacians that could afford armor wore customised Phrygian type helmets with solid crests (intricately decorated), domed helmets and Sarmatian helmets.[ Rome's enemies: Germanics and Dacians by Peter Wilcox, Gerry Embleton, , 1982] They fought with spears, javelins, falces, and one-sided battle axes, and used " Draco" carnyxes as standards. Most used only shields as a form of defense. Cavalry would be armed with a spear, a long La Tène sword and an oval shield; few in number, they relied heavily on Sarmatian allies for their mounted arm.
Some of the of the infantry depicted on Trajan's Column appear to be wielding a falx and perhaps a sica. Many are shown to fight without any armor at all, even shunning shields.
Mercenaries
Dacian mercenaries were uncommon in contrast to the
Thracians and the
Illyrians but they could be found in the service of the Greek
Diadochi[ The Coming of Rome in the Dacian World, , 2000, page 83] and of the
Ancient Rome.
[ The Coming of Rome in the Dacian World, , 2000, page 115]
Nobility
A 2nd century chieftain would wear a bronze Phrygian type helmet, a
corslet of iron
scale armour, an oval wooden shield with motifs and wield a sword.
[Rome's Enemies (1): Germanics and Dacians (Men at Arms Series, 129) by Peter Wilcox and Gerry Embleton, 1982]
Navy
The ancient historian Ptolemy mentions a naval battle between the Geto-Dacians and the Romans near the island of Eukon (most likely today's
Popina Island).
Fortifications
Dacians had built fortresses all around Dacia with most of them being on the
Danube.
[Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 13, "The shores of the Danube were well monitored from the Dacian fortresses Acidava, Buricodava, Dausadava (the shrine of the wolves), Diacum, Drobeta (Turnu Severin), Nentivava (Oltenita), Suvidava (Corabia), Tsirista, Tierna/Dierna (Orsova) and what is today Zimnicea. Downstream were also other fortresses: Axiopolis (Cernadova), Barbosi, Buteridava, Capidava (Topalu), Carsium (Harsova), Durostorum (Silistra), Sacidava/Sagadava (Dunareni) along with still others..."] A scene from Trajan's column shows Romans attacking a Dacian fortification using the "testudo".
[ The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Volume 2, Rome from the Late Republic to the Late Empire by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 2007, page 149: "... 4.5 Scene from Trajan's column depicting Roman troops attacking a Dacian fortification, using the famous testudo (tortoise) formation to shield themselves from ..."]
The Dacians constructed stone strongholds, davas, in the Carpathian Mountains in order to protect their capital Sarmizegetusa. The fortifications were built on a system of circular belts. This allowed the defenders, after a stronghold was lost, to retreat to the next one using hidden escape gates. Advanced defensive systems adopted from the Ancient Greece made their already powerful strongholds extremely difficult obstacles.
External influences
Scythian and Sarmatian
The
Dacian Draco was the standard of the ancient
military. It served as a standard for the Dacians of the La Tène period and its origin must clearly be sought in the art of Asia Minor sometime during the second millennium BC.
[Parvan Vasile (1928) in 'Dacia', Bucuresti, page 125]
Sarmatians were part[Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 170] of the Dacian army as allies. The Roxolani became part of the Dacians while the Iazyges fought against them trying to claim their own land.[Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 134]
The Celts played a very active role in Dacia as enemies that were easily defeated by Dacians.[Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 88] The Scordisci were among the defeated Celts that the Dacians conquered.[ Strab. 7.5, "...they often used the Scordisci as allies..."]
Greek/Hellenic
Cothelas had become a vassal to ancient
Macedon. Some Kings of the
Getae had been
Hellenized[The Thracians, 700 BC - AD 46 by Christopher Webber, , , 2001, page 14, "It shows a Hellenised king of the Getae..."] The Dacians traded with the Hellenistic world based upon their mineral reserves and gained better technological and cultural strategies than their
Germanic peoples and
Celts neighbours. Advanced defensive systems made their already powerful strongholds extremely difficult obstacles.
Roman
After their defeat, the Dacians were ethnically cleansed. Young men were either killed or became slaves or legionaries. The remaining population was expelled and their lands were given to colonists.
Later, the
Ancient Rome under Domitian started minting a coin called
Dacicus.
[ Dacicus, "Dācicus, a gold coin of Domitian, conqueror of the Dacians..."]
Barbarians
Dacians were spoken of by
Trajan as dignified barbarians
[The Barbarians Speak: How the Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe by Peter S. Wells, 2001, page 105, "... so too the Emperor Trajan represented the Dacians as a strong threat to Roman authority on the lower Danube. These barbarian enemies are represented in heroic fashion, as dignified warriors ..."] consequently still dangerous, but unable to win against the might of
Rome. 1st century BC poet
Horace writes of them in one of his works and mentions them along with the
Scythians[ Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Odes, John Conington, Ed.Hor. Carm. 1.35, "The fierce Dacians, and Scythian hordes, people and towns, and Rome, their head, and mothers of barbarian lords, and tyrants in their purple dread,..."] as
tyrants and fierce barbarians. Later historian
Tacitus writes that they are a people that can never be trusted.
[ Tac. Hist. 3.46, "The Dacians also were in motion, a people which never can be trusted..."]
The Ancient Greeks[Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 54, "The Greeks were so impressed with his achievements that they named him 'the first and greatest king of the kings of Thracia'...."] expressed admiration and respect for Burebista.
List of Dacian battles
This is a list of battles or conflicts that Dacians had a leading or crucial role in, rarely as mercenaries. They were involved in massive battles against Roman legions.
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Unknown date. Celtic Boii in Bohemia against Dacian tribes from the lower Danube,
[Celtic Warrior: 300 BC-AD 100 by Stephen Allen and Wayne Reynolds, 2001, Front Matter,"... 60: Celtic Boii in Bohemia defeated by Dacian tribes from the lower Danube. 58-51: Caesar's campaigns in Gaul ..."] Dacian victory
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1st century BC Dacians against Scordisci, Dacian victory
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87, First Battle of Tapae, Dacian victory
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101, Second Battle of Tapae, Roman victory
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102, Battle of Adamclisi, Roman victory
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103, Battle of Gatae, Dacian victory
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106, Battle of Sarmisegetusa, Roman victory
See also
External links
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target="_blank" rel="nofollow"> Dacian reenactor with Falx
